IWHHR: Week 8 (Women and Aging)

During the summer of 2014, I am taking an online course in Global Health from Stanford University taught by Anne Firth Murray entitled, "International Women's Health and Human Rights" (IWHHR). I will be posting my reflective writing assignments from each week's course of study. All writings can be found under the tag IWHHR. Details on the course can be found here.

If you are interested in taking this or another course, you can find a listing of the online courses offered by Stanford here. From economics to cryptography, courses are added each semester.

Photo by S. Smith Patrick

THOUGHT QUESTION, WEEK 8 (AGING)

Given that the number of people over the age of 65 is going to increase hugely in the next few decades (with women being in the majority), share your thoughts about how women’s lives may be affected by these demographic changes both for better and for worse.  Consider the situation in your own country.

Over the course of this online class, I have come to more fully appreciate the benefits I enjoy because I live in a developed country with vast resources available to me. I have realized that in my sphere, women are, by and large, well regarded and taken care of. As women age in my country, though I can see some of the negative factors of aging, I observe that most older women are being taken care of. It's certainly likely that in other communities within my country, aging women are not being cared for. But in my observation, aging women are often looked upon as ones who have a lot of wisdom, who have lived hard lives and are therefore deserving of our care and assistance.

Growing up in San Francisco, in our church ward twenty years ago, there were many LOLs, as we called them, Little Old Ladies. There were far more widowed and single older women than there were men, maybe even ten to one. This ratio could also be due to the fact that women tend to be more active, religiously speaking.

In the coming years, as we have learned in this unit, the number of older men and women will outnumber the number of young people. Because women tend to live longer than men, the number of older women will be even greater than ever before. These demographic changes, along with the lower fertility rate than in previous generations, will put a greater burden on the younger people to care for their elders and put older people at greater risk for being "forgotten" if you will.

As I mentioned earlier, my community and my family has historically taken care of its older generation, especially its women. With the upcoming demographic changes, I don't see any change in that. We seem to revere our mothers and grandmothers and do all in our power to ensure they are taken care of. This is true within my family, extended family and in my church. Special care and thought is given to the older women of our church. While we may not always does a great job, they are certainly not forgotten. It's possible that as the number of older women increase, so too will the awareness of their needs and therefore, the service rendered to them.

Living in a developed nation, and a caring community, I fully acknowledge the experience could likely be different in other communities and nations. But I think awareness and instilling love for our families can change the situation. If we love our mothers and honor the role they have played in bringing us into the world and teaching us how to be, then we will naturally turn our hearts to them, and to the women (and men) have have gone before us and plowed the earth, so to speak, to make way for us, their children, to enjoy countless blessings and reap the benefits of their hard work. It's a cycle because we then will do the same our children and those to come.

IWHHR: Group Meeting - Individual Reflection #2

During the summer of 2014, I am taking an online course in Global Health from Stanford University taught by Anne Firth Murray entitled, "International Women's Health and Human Rights" (IWHHR). I will be posting my reflective writing assignments from each week's course of study. All writings can be found under the tag IWHHR. Details on the course can be found here.

If you are interested in taking this or another course, you can find a listing of the online courses offered by Stanford here. From economics to cryptography, courses are added each semester.

Photo from our course material

International Women’s Health & Human Rights
www.internationalwomenshealth.org

Week 3 Discussion Guide:

Childhood and Adolescence

Themes from the Week
• Adolescence and Change
• Female Genital Mutilation
• HIV/AIDS

Part I. Initial Response
Please discuss your personal reactions to the readings and/or videos from Week 3 on Childhood and Adolescence, which focused on Female Genital Cutting/Mutilation and the prevalence of HIV/AIDS. Describe one new idea or fact that you have learned from the course this week.

Part II. Topical Discussion Questions on Female Genital Cutting/Mutilation to consider with your group.
1. Why is it important to study adolescent girls as a separate age group? What are issues that adolescent girls face that children (younger than 10) do not? What are issues that adolescent girls face that women (older than 24) do not?
2. What is the World Health Organization's definition of Female Genital Mutilation [FGM]? Consider the terms “female genital mutilation,” “female genital cutting,” and “female circumcision.” Given what you know about the differences in the procedures between countries, comment on these terminologies.
3. What are the justifications for FGM? What are the consequences of FGM? What is being done to change perceptions of FGM in the communities in which it is practiced? If you were a citizen of a country in which FGM is being practiced, how would you address the cultural reasons for conducting the procedure?

Part III. Topical Discussion Questions on HIV/AIDS to consider with your group.
4. Girls and women are more vulnerable to contracting HIV/AIDS than are boys and men. Why do females have a higher risk than males of contracting HIV? Think about biology, social status, and age differences.
5. How does the stigma relating to HIV/AIDS further endanger girls living with this disease?
6. Despite the devastating effects of HIV/AIDS, there are methods and resources to reduce symptoms and prevent the spread of the disease. Pretend that you are a young woman in a monogamous relationship with an HIV positive male. What are some ways to prevent you from contracting HIV? If you plan to have a baby, like Bhanu in From Outrage to Courage, how can you prevent your child from contracting HIV? How are some communities helping girls and young women infected with HIV/AIDS?

Part IV. Women’s Health & Human Rights in Your Community
Dr. Gene Richardson talked about “structural violence,” which he calls “types of violence that are not physical but that affect the health of populations,” including “institutionalized racism, gender inequality, lack of access to water or to clean water, lack of access to adequate housing—all the sorts of social mechanisms that prevent a population or a group of persons from becoming as healthy as they should be can be thought of as structural violence.”
7. Please think about the community you live in. Are there any examples of “structural violence” in your community that prevent some members of the community from being as healthy as they could be? Please write down some of these examples.
8. Write down some of the reasons these conditions exist.
9. Are there ways to address these problems? Does positive change require action from the government, organizations, or individuals to help eliminate “structural violence” and promote health for all?

Unfortunately, this time around two of our group members decided not to join us, so that left just me and one other woman named Janelle. We had a good discussion anyway, following Discussion Toolkit 3. We discussed what we learned about FGM/C, its prevalence, and the (physical, emotional, psychological, etc.) issues women face because of it. We also talked about HIV/AIDS and how we would handle a relationship with a partner who was HIV positive. Admittedly, we both felt like this might be a deal-breaker. Next we spoke a lot about St. Lucia and the structural violence examples Janelle has seen there. She talked about the attitudes of men and how often women don't really have a say in the relationships. It was fascinating to me, being from the United States and I really appreciated her openness and the opportunity to learn how life was for her in the Caribbean.

IWHHR: Week 7A / 7B (Globalization and Women's Work / Sex Work and Sex Trafficking)

During the summer of 2014, I am taking an online course in Global Health from Stanford University taught by Anne Firth Murray entitled, "International Women's Health and Human Rights" (IWHHR). I will be posting my reflective writing assignments from each week's course of study. All writings can be found under the tag IWHHR. Details on the course can be found here.

If you are interested in taking this or another course, you can find a listing of the online courses offered by Stanford here. From economics to cryptography, courses are added each semester.

WEEK 7 THOUGHT QUESTION

Think about this question:

Although the text notes that there are many legitimate fears about the negative impact of globalization on women, it can be argued that there are benefits for women internationally. Describe in three to five thoughtful paragraphs three possible positive impacts of globalization on women.

After reading the text, I started to think that globalization has actually had great detrimental impact on women, which in many cases it has. The advances and money infused in poorer countries sometimes seems to have exacerbated the plight of poorer women. But with the bad, there is always good.

Globalization has opened opened up opportunities for women for paid employment and a way out of very restricted lives, has created new standards for the treatment of women, and has helped women's groups to come together and mobilize. In many countries globalization has helped to increase women's status and opportunities for growth and progression. Women have more job opportunities than they did even 50 years ago. There are also far more NGOs working to help women across the world.

"Although trafficking is in part a consequence of inequities stemming from capitalism and globalization, it is possible that, working together, women and men can employ some of the benefits of globalization -- instantaneous communication, the uninhibited flow of knowledge and ideas, and major upgrades in the technological infrastructure -- to prevent trafficking." (Murray, p. 218)

Change takes times. It's very likely that globalization's effects will impact women adversely before they get better, but I do believe it will get better over time. Change is a slow-moving ship, but it will eventually get there with the help of many people and the pass of time and people who are ingrained in the old ways. Together, as individuals and collectively, we will make a difference.

IWHHR: Week 6 (Women in War and Refugee Settings)

During the summer of 2014, I am taking an online course in Global Health from Stanford University taught by Anne Firth Murray entitled, "International Women's Health and Human Rights" (IWHHR). I will be posting my reflective writing assignments from each week's course of study. All writings can be found under the tag IWHHR. Details on the course can be found here.

If you are interested in taking this or another course, you can find a listing of the online courses offered by Stanford here. From economics to cryptography, courses are added each semester.

Photo from our course material

THOUGHT QUESTION, WEEK 6

It is clear that violence against women increases during conflict and post-conflict periods. In the context of the video interview with Zainab Bangura, do you think that it is inevitable that conflict will result in increased violence against women? Do you think that anything short of eliminating war will eliminate the problem of violence against women in conflict and refugee circumstances? Is peace possible?

Zainab Bangura, of Sierra Leone, is the current Under-Secretary-General, Special Representative on Sexual Violence in Conflict. In her interview she discussed the concept of command and control. If rape (as a weapon of warfare) is commanded, it can be controlled. Based on her interview, it is not inevitable that conflict will result in increased violence against women.

Ms. Bangura spoke of interventions and conversations she has had with military personnel. These men are human. Certainly, there are some monsters who will just commit rape and violence no matter what. But the majority of these men, she believes, are true human beings and have a conscience which can be appealed to. She spoke with them about the injustice that is done against women. By asking them what they would do if this woman was their mother or their sister or their daughter, she was able to put into perspective the great atrocity that is occurring to women.

As is often said, and something with which I completely agree, education is the key. Men are people too. Despite the fact that they are the perpetrators of the vast majority of sexual violence in war and refugee settings, they are still people. If we can educate the military or other group leaders that rape is a crime and how it can completely destroy a woman and her family, then I believe many of these men will stand up for what is right. The leaders need to not only believe that rape is a crime, but they need to be prepared and dedicated enough to swiftly investigate and prosecute these crimes so that others will begin to learn and accept that it is a crime and should not happen. This is how the culture will change.

Ultimately, education and gender equality are what is needed to highlight rape as a war crime and begin the process to eliminate the problem of violence against women in conflict and refugee circumstances. "If you don't respect your women, you can't protect them during conflict," Ms. Bangura stated. Elimination is possible. Peace is possible. The military and leadership who took her advice in the DRC drastically reduced the rate of rape by the following year when they went back into battle. Not only were the perpetrators held responsible, so was the commander. So the commander had an invested interest in ensuring that his soldiers knew, understood, and followed his orders NOT to commit rape or any other type of gender-based violence during warfare.

Elimination or at least drastically reduced rates of gender-based violence is possible. Peace is always possible. With buy-in from powerful leaders, peace can be brought about.

If you are interested there are some great documentaries in a series called Women, War and Peace on PBS. I've watched a few of them. Individual stories always help me to understand history and its effects on communities and the world.

IWHHR: Week 5 (Violence Against Women)

During the summer of 2014, I am taking an online course in Global Health from Stanford University taught by Anne Firth Murray entitled, "International Women's Health and Human Rights" (IWHHR). I will be posting my reflective writing assignments from each week's course of study. All writings can be found under the tag IWHHR. Details on the course can be found here.

If you are interested in taking this or another course, you can find a listing of the online courses offered by Stanford here. From economics to cryptography, courses are added each semester.

THOUGHT QUESTION, WEEK 5

Do you think that violence is a “natural” part of being human?  If so, why do you think this? If not, why do you think violence, particularly against women, is so prevalent? Please write a response in three to five thoughtful paragraphs.

The question, "what is natural?" must be defined before answering whether or not violence is a natural part of being human. Natural, as defined by Merriam Webster means:

: existing in nature and not made or caused by people : coming from nature
: usual or expected
: implanted or being as if implanted by nature : seemingly inborn

Still with this definition, I find it difficult to answer this question. I think we are born with certain tendencies and characteristics, both positive and negative which we either have to overcome to let it subside (negative or harmful tendency) or disappear or nurture to develop more fully (positive or beneficial tendency). The tendency to be violent is a characteristic which is inborn, but is only developed or brought out by cultural traditions and expectations.

Certainly, as an adult the tendency to get angry is natural, but how we choose to channel that anger is just that, a choice. Our choices as young people and into adulthood, however, are largely dependent on what we have seen in our families and what we have been taught. Violence is one way to react to the feeling of anger but there are many other ways to handle that anger, but other options must be illustrated and taught. Think of a two-year old child who has difficulty sharing a toy. Often that child's reaction is to bite or hit the child who has taken his or her toy or has the toy that he or she wants. In my experience, this type of violent reaction is more common than not for a small child and children must be taught  or learn other ways to react or channel their anger in a non-violent manner.

That being said, there are culturally acceptable ways to channel that anger, which are often gender-based. Unfortunately, violence is acceptable in some cultures as a way to express anger, whether that is violence against people in general, women or intimate partners, children, or simply against property. I have observed that allowing violent reactions is more acceptable for boys than it is for girls. Many of us have heard the phrase, "boys will be boys." Unfortunately, this school of thought perpetuates the notion that violence is an acceptable form of expressing one's anger with no thought to the other person or their physical rights.

With regard to sexual violence, I think it is somewhat an extension of violence due to anger, but I believe this type of violence is learned and is not innate or natural, depending on the reason for the violence, which is debatable and likely, different in every situation. But it is the same in that other options to channel their feelings (anger, desire for power, hatred, etc.) must be introduced, taught, and practiced. Most people do and act the way they have been taught, the way they have observed relationships function throughout their lives. If they have never seen another way, they will not know how to do something different until it is introduced to them. Until they have been taught.

Our responsibility as adults, as parents, and as influential members of our communities is to help make other non-violent options known and understood. We can act as examples. We can teach children or other adults who still struggle with this tendency before they find themselves in a potentially violent anger situation, what options they have to deal with the anger. If the tools are not given to individuals to deal with their anger in the heads, they may resort to physical violence. Tools can include learning how to soothe oneself, learning to take a step back from the situation and wait while the anger in one's mind subsides, learning to channel that anger into something else physical like running or boxing. All of these tools take practice before they are fully effective and if they are introduced at a young age, an individual has a much better chance of ridding him or herself of the natural tendency toward violence and empower him or herself with the greater emotional and mental capacity of rising above.

IWHHR: Week 4 (Reproductive Health)

During the summer of 2014, I am taking an online course in Global Health from Stanford University taught by Anne Firth Murray entitled, "International Women's Health and Human Rights" (IWHHR). I will be posting my reflective writing assignments from each week's course of study. All writings can be found under the tag IWHHR. Details on the course can be found here.

If you are interested in taking this or another course, you can find a listing of the online courses offered by Stanford here. From economics to cryptography, courses are added each semester.

THOUGHT QUESTION, WEEK FOUR ON REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH

How do the themes and issues raised in the short film, "Why Did Mrs. X Die?" correspond to the conditions in your country? Do you know anyone who has experienced or dealt with these conditions? 

"Mrs. X didn't only die of a hemorrhage. She also died of social injustice." 

The remake of the short animated film "Why Did Mrs. X Die?" is a great teaching tool for women in poor areas of the world. I was impressed with the information and the way it was presented. The music and the drawings are pleasing to the ear and eye and drew me into her story.

Mrs. X encountered so many barriers along her path of pregnancy keeping her from getting the help she needed to have a health pregnancy and deliver a healthy baby. These barriers: lack of doctor visits, lack of access to midwives and doctors, lack of blood, lack of transportation to the hospital, illiteracy and lack of education, poverty, living in a remote village, gender inequality causing women to be the last to receive food are all barriers to a healthy pregnancy

Mrs. X could be any woman in any country, but most likely from a poor or remote area. I do not know anyone, personally, who has met ALL of these barriers, but I have known women who find themselves pregnant without the finances or insurance that would enable them to visit the doctor regularly and get the care they need during pregnancy.

This movie was an eye-opener for me to all the things that I take for granted living in the United States. Opportunity for education, employment, and medical access is fairly universal. Certainly there are inequities, but I feel for the most part you can find what you need and find a way to get it. Now, this may not be the case for those in the poorest of circumstances in the U.S., but the chance to overcome the barriers presented in the film seems far more attainable in the U.S. than it might in other developing countries.

Enlightening it was to think that these barriers actually started when she was just a child before she even thought about having babies of her own. Education. Gender equality in family. The more I hear about stories like the story of Mrs. X, the more I realize how privileged and blessed I have been to grow up where I did and with the family I did. This makes me grateful and in return, makes me want to help and reach out. As the narrator of the film said, "It is up to all of us, no matter where we live, who we are, or what we do to help remove these barriers for Mrs. X and the millions of pregnant women like her." Dr. Mahmoud Fathalla said this is a call to action for all who care.

I care.

IWHHR: Group Meeting - Individual Reflection #1

During the summer of 2014, I am taking an online course in Global Health from Stanford University taught by Anne Firth Murray entitled, "International Women's Health and Human Rights" (IWHHR). I will be posting my reflective writing assignments from each week's course of study. All writings can be found under the tag IWHHR. Details on the course can be found here.

If you are interested in taking this or another course, you can find a listing of the online courses offered by Stanford here. From economics to cryptography, courses are added each semester.

International Women’s Health & Human Rights
www.internationalwomenshealth.org

Week 1 Discussion Guide:

Women’s Rights

Photo from our text, From Outrage to Courage by Anne Firth Murray

Themes from the Week
• The status of females
• Women’s Rights = Human Rights
• Giving reality to human rights
• Negative Rights: (civil rights) and Positive Rights (socio-economic rights)
• UDHR, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights

Part I. Introduction and Initial Response
Take a moment to write down: Why are you interested in taking this course? What do you hope to gain from it? Then, when everyone is ready, please share these ideas with your group.
Next, please discuss your personal reactions to the readings and/or videos from Week 1 on Women’s Human Rights. Describe one new idea or fact that you learned from the course this week.

Part II. Topical Discussion Questions to consider with your group. 
1. What does it mean to be born female in different parts of the world?
• Consider places such as Brazil, China, Egypt, India, Kenya, the United States, or any other country of interest, including your own.
• What are the barriers and burdens that women (not men) experience?
• What are some reasons these barriers and burdens exist?
2. Recall the conversation on human rights with Professor Helen Stacy. Think about and discuss the differences between negative rights and positive rights.
3. Consider your own country and women’s rights. What is the condition of negative (civil) rights in your country? What about positive (socio-economic) rights?
4. Can human rights norms be broadly adopted and/or enforced? Consider them at the local, national, and international levels. If your answer is “yes,” how can they be given reality? Who are involved and what are some of the challenges? If your answer is “no,” then how can these rights still be promoted? (Please refer to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights if you think it is relevant to your response to these questions.)
5. Discuss the CEDAW treaty. What does the acronym stand for? How does it pertain to your country? Has your country ratified CEDAW and/or has it placed any reservations on the treaty? Why do you think it has placed reservations?

During our discussion this morning, it was apparent that we were from various backgrounds and came into it with different experiences. This made our conversation all the richer. We discussed women's rights as human rights through the context of our own experiences in our families, our communities, and the two different countries where we are from. The other women in my group opened my eyes to experiences and stereotypes they have encountered in their lives as women of color. Another woman shared with us her views about what it means to be a woman in her country of St. Lucia and even the differences between living in the capital as she does and living in the rural areas. We talked a lot about how it comes down to how we were raised and the type of education that happens within each family. The family is the fundamental unit of society. Though governments have the power to impose laws about human rights (hopefully in our favor), the action happens at the smallest of levels. First the family, then the school, the workplace, the community, the city, the state, the country and so forth. We followed Discussion Toolkit from Week One. It was a fruitful discussion (two hours) and really helped us all to get more excited about the class and be accountable for our learning so we have something to bring to the group. Group work has always been difficult for me. The timing, the planning, the scheduling, the equal load share. But it's always rewarding when done right.

IWHHR: Week 3B (Childhood & Adolescence: HIV/AIDS)

During the summer of 2014, I am taking an online course in Global Health from Stanford University taught by Anne Firth Murray entitled, "International Women's Health and Human Rights" (IWHHR). I will be posting my reflective writing assignments from each week's course of study. All writings can be found under the tag IWHHR. Details on the course can be found here.

If you are interested in taking this or another course, you can find a listing of the online courses offered by Stanford here. From economics to cryptography, courses are added each semester.

THOUGHT QUESTION, WEEK 3, PART B

Dr. Gene Richardson speaks about how reliance on medical technology can undermine the introduction of social interventions that may be relevant in preventing or treating HIV/AIDS.  Describe two or three social/non-medical interventions that you think might be effective in preventing or treating HIV/AIDS.  Write three to five thoughtful paragraphs about these possible interventions.

This week I learned that gender inequality plays a huge role in the HIV epidemic. Girls are more than twice as likely to contract the disease for both social and physiological reasons. Social interventions to combat gender inequality are relevant in treating and preventing HIV/AIDS by the same principle that participating in a sports team or taking up running (social intervention) can help one's overall physical health and possibly eliminate the need to take a blood pressure medication (the bio-medical intervention). Treating the root of the problem instead of just the symptoms.

The first social intervention that comes to mind immediately is educating young people (both boys and girls). Education, alone, increases the chances that young children and adolescents will be in the classroom instead of vulnerable on the streets where they are more likely to become involved in unsafe sex practices and drug use, which we know increase the odds of contracting HIV.

Eradicating school fees, so that all children and adolescents have equal access to attend school would be another social intervention that would be relevant.

Also, the type of education and learning also makes a difference. Education about the disease specifically, as illustrated in the videos distributed by TeachAIDS, will help young people know what HIV is and how to be careful not to contract it. Also teaching healthy communication styles to empower girls to ask for what they deserve. Both boys and girls (and men and women) would benefit greatly, in all cultures, from healthy communication practices.

Other interventions include banning things like child marriage and FGM/C. These would help to get girl children to remain in school and in a less vulnerable position to contract HIV/AIDS. I was surprised to learn in this week's readings and videos that one of the most vulnerable places for an adolescent girl to be in to contract HIV/AIDS is marriage due to the practice of husbands continuing to have multiple partners, which is socially acceptable and encouraged in many poorer countries, and the inability to negotiate safe sex with condoms, and the inability to say no to sex with their husbands due to cultural/social expectations.

The effects of FGM/C on girls' school attendance, psychological health, and physical health are all factors making her more vulnerable to situations where should would contract HIV.

Social interventions may have a greater holistic effect in preventing HIV/AIDS and decreasing its prevalence than bio-medical interventions such as preventative cocktails, which are often given to high-risk individuals in some sub-Saharan African countries, as well as India. Instead of just treating the HIV virus after it is acquired (bio-medically with medication and other healthcare), preventing women and girls from being in the situation to contract the disease by implementing other social interventions as mentioned above will have a greater effect on decreasing the number of HIV/AIDS cases. Combining these social and bio-medical efforts will help both those who are vulnerable and at risk to potentially contract the disease, as well as those who have already been diagnosed.

IWHHR: Week 3A (Childhood and Adolescence: Female Genital Cutting / Mutilation)

During the summer of 2014, I am taking an online course in Global Health from Stanford University taught by Anne Firth Murray entitled, "International Women's Health and Human Rights" (IWHHR). I will be posting my reflective writing assignments from each week's course of study. All writings can be found under the tag IWHHR. Details on the course can be found here.

If you are interested in taking this or another course, you can find a listing of the online courses offered by Stanford here. From economics to cryptography, courses are added each semester.

THOUGHT QUESTION, WEEK 3A: FEMALE GENITAL CUTTING / MUTILATION (2 OF 3)

Consider the different terminologies used for the cutting of female genitalia, as discussed in the text, "From Outrage to Courage" and write three to five thoughtful paragraphs about the implications of the different terminologies:

• Female Genital Cutting
• Female Genital Mutilation
• Female Circumcision

I have always been a staunch believer in the fact that you can say anything to anyone, but how you say it will alter the outcome of how it is received. Execution matters. Words and terminology matter.

At one point in my reading during this unit, I thought about the fact that calling this practice "mutilation" could be very harmful for a victim of the act to live with. To feel as though you have been mutilated, to be told you're a victim of a mutilation and no longer whole could have lifelong psychological effects. And, indeed, we know that FGM/C causes lifelong adverse psychological effects on many, if not all who are subjected to the practice.

The World Health Organization (WHO) has officially adopted the term "female genital mutilation" to identify the practice. However, we know that "female circumcision and "female genital cutting" are also used just as often to describe the practice.

Female circumcision is a term that is a little misleading, since its comparison to male circumcision is inevitable. In fact, female genital cutting is very different than male circumcision. The only way the terms could be equivalent would be if when males are circumcised, they are entirely or partially dismembered and their penises suffer mutilation that cannot ever be repaired. I will not be making an argument for or against male circumcision, but it only involves cutting away the foreskin from the tip of the penis and none of the actual sexual organs are harmed. This not the case with female circumcision, so the term is hardly equitable. Also, the term circumcision also brings with it a level of validity and appropriateness since male circumcision is widely practiced and typically does not cause major physical and psychological health concerns for the rest of that male's life. It's an easier term to handle for some because it does not immediately bring to mind the horror that the terms mutilation and cutting do.

Despite the possible psychological effects that the term female genital mutilation may impose on those have undergone the practice, I think this term combined with cutting is the most accurate and keeps on the forefront of our minds the tragic horror that is this practice. Education is key in decreasing and eventually eradicating this practice which is deeply entrenched in the cultural traditions of the people who perpetuate it.